Cannabis sativa L.[1] Cannabis indica Lam. (putative)[1] Cannabis ruderalis Janisch. (putative)

Cannabis Museum in Amsterdam Amsterdam (pronounced /ˈæmstərdæm/; Dutch [ɑmstərˈdɑm] ) is the capital and largest city of the Netherlands, located in the province of North Holland in the west of the country. The city, which had a population of around 1 million (with suburbs) on 1 January 2008, comprises the northern part of the Randstad, the 6th-largest metropolitan

Cannabis (Cán-na-bis) is a genus The term comes from Latin genus "descent, family, type, gender" , cognate with Greek: γένος - genos, "race, stock, kin" of flowering plants The flowering plants or angiosperms are the most widespread group of land plants. The flowering plants and the gymnosperms are the only extant groups of seed plants. The flowering plants are distinguished from other seed plants by a series of apomorphies, or derived characteristics that includes three putative species, Cannabis sativa L.,[1] Cannabis indica Lam.,[1] and Cannabis ruderalis Janisch. These three taxa A taxon is a group of (one or more) organisms, which a taxonomist adjudges to be a unit. Usually a taxon is given a name and a rank, although neither is a requirement. Defining what belongs or does not belong to such a taxonomic group is done by a taxonomist. It is not uncommon for one taxonomist to disagree with another on what exactly belongs to are indigenous In biogeography, a species is defined as indigenous or native to a given region or ecosystem, if its presence in that region is the result of only natural resources, with no human intervention. Every natural organism has its own natural range of distribution, in which it is regarded as native. Outside this native range, a species may be introduced to Central Asia Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east, and from southern Russia in the north to northern India in the south. It is also sometimes known as Middle Asia or Inner Asia, and is within the scope of the wider Eurasian continent. Various definitions of its exact composition exist and no one, South Asia South Asia, also known as Southern Asia, is the southern region of the Asian continent, which comprises the sub-Himalayan countries and, for some authorities , also includes the adjoining countries on the west and the east. It is surrounded (clockwise, from west to east) by Western Asia, Central Asia, Eastern Asia, Southeastern Asia and the Indian[2], and surrounding regions. Cannabis has long been used for fibre (hemp Hemp (from Old English hænep, see cannabis ) is the common name for plants of the entire genus Cannabis, although the term is often used to refer only to Cannabis strains cultivated for industrial (non-drug) use), for medicinal purposes Medical cannabis, , refers to the use of the Cannabis plant as a physician-recommended drug or herbal therapy, as well as synthetic THC and other cannabinoids. There are many studies regarding the use of cannabis in a medicinal context. Drug usage generally requires a prescription, and distribution is usually done within a framework defined by, and as a recreational drug Cannabis, also known as marijuana, marihuana, or ganja refers to any number of preparations of the cannabis plant intended for human consumption as a drug, the most common of which is the natural herbal form. Industrial hemp Hemp (from Old English hænep, see cannabis ) is the common name for plants of the entire genus Cannabis, although the term is often used to refer only to Cannabis strains cultivated for industrial (non-drug) use products are made from Cannabis plants selected to produce an abundance of fiber and minimal levels of THC Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), also known as delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), Δ1-THC (using an older chemical nomenclature), or dronabinol, is the main psychoactive substance found in the Cannabis plant (Δ9- tetrahydrocannabinol), a psychoactive A psychoactive drug or psychotropic substance is a chemical substance that acts primarily upon the central nervous system where it alters brain function, resulting in temporary changes in perception, mood, consciousness and behaviour. These drugs may be used recreationally to purposefully alter one's consciousness, as entheogens for ritual or molecule that produces the "high" associated with marijuana Cannabis, also known as marijuana, marihuana, or ganja refers to any number of preparations of the cannabis plant intended for human consumption as a drug, the most common of which is the natural herbal form. The psychoactive consists of dried flowers and leaves of plants selected to produce high levels of THC, though there is no significant evidence of extremely high levels of THC. Various extracts including hashish Hashish (from Arabic: حشيش ḥashīsh, lit. "grass", from hashsha "to become dry"; also hash) is a preparation of cannabis composed of the compressed stalked resin glands called trichomes, collected from the cannabis plant. It contains the same active ingredients but in higher concentrations than other parts of the plant and hash oil are also produced from the plant.[3]

Contents

Etymology

Main article: Cannabis (etymology)

The plant name cannabis is from Greek Ancient Greek is the historical stage in the development of the Greek language spanning across the Archaic , Classical (c. 5th–4th centuries BC), and Hellenistic (c. 3rd century BC–6th century AD) periods of ancient Greece and the ancient world. It is predated in the 2nd millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek. Its Hellenistic phase is known as Koine κάνναβις (kánnabis), via Latin Latin is an Italic language historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Through the Roman conquest, Latin spread throughout the Mediterranean and a large part of Europe. Romance languages such as Italian, French, Catalan, Romanian, Spanish, and Portuguese are descended from Latin, while many others, especially European languages, including cannabis, a Scythian The Scythian languages form a North Eastern branch of the Iranian language family and comprise the distinctive languages spoken by the Scythian (Sarmatian and Saka) tribes of nomadic pastoralists in Scythia (Central Asia, Pontic-Caspian steppe) between the 8th century BC and the 5th century AD. Up to the 4th century AD we have only a few words or Thracian The Thracian language was the Indo-European language spoken in ancient times by the Thracians in South-Eastern Europe word, also loaned into Persian Persian is an Iranian language within the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European languages. It is widely spoken in Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Bahrain and has official-language status in the first three countries under different names. Persian is a pluricentric language. The Persian language has been a medium for literary and as kanab. English hemp Hemp (from Old English hænep, see cannabis ) is the common name for plants of the entire genus Cannabis, although the term is often used to refer only to Cannabis strains cultivated for industrial (non-drug) use (Old English hænep) may be an early loan (predating Grimm's Law Grimm's law named for Jacob Grimm, is a set of statements describing the inherited Proto-Indo-European (PIE) stops as they developed in Proto-Germanic (PGmc, the common ancestor of the Germanic branch of the Indo-European family) in the 1st millennium BC. It establishes a set of regular correspondences between early Germanic stops and fricatives) from the same source. In Hebrew 1United States Census 2000 PHC-T-37. Ability to Speak English by Language Spoken at Home: 2000. Table 1a, the word is קַנַּבּוֹס [qanːa'boːs]. Old Akkadian qunnabtu, Neo-Assyrian Assyria was a political state centered on the Upper Tigris river, in Mesopotamia , that came to rule regional empires a number of times in history. It was named for its original capital, the ancient city of Assur (Akkadian: Aššur; Arabic: أشور Aššûr; Hebrew: אַשּׁוּר Aššûr, Aramaic: ܐܫܘܪ Ašur, ܐܬܘܪ Atur). The term and Neo-Babylonian Babylonia was a state in Lower Mesopotamia , with Babylon as its capital. Babylonia emerged when Hammurabi (fl. ca. 1696 – 1654 BC, short chronology) created an empire out of the territories of the former kingdoms of Sumer and Akkad. The Amorites being a Semitic people, Babylonia adopted the written Semitic Akkadian language for official use, qunnabu were used to refer to the plant.[4][5]

The further origin of the Scythian term is uncertain.

Description

Cannabis is an annual An annual plant is a plant that usually germinates, flowers, and dies in one year. True annuals will only live longer than a year if they are prevented from setting seed. Some seedless plants can also be considered annuals even though they do not grow a flower, dioecious Dioecious species are species whose members can produce only one type of gamete; each individual organism belonging to a dioecious species is distinctly male or female. The majority of animal species (for example, all mammals and reptiles) are dioecious, flowering The flowering plants or angiosperms are the most widespread group of land plants. The flowering plants and the gymnosperms are the only extant groups of seed plants. The flowering plants are distinguished from other seed plants by a series of apomorphies, or derived characteristics herb In American English "herb" is normally pronounced /ˈɝːb/, with the initial "h" silent, but in British English the "h" is sounded: /ˈhɜːb/. The leaves In botany, a leaf is an above-ground plant organ specialized for photosynthesis. For this purpose, a leaf is typically flat and thin, to expose the cells containing chloroplast to light over a broad area, and to allow light to penetrate fully into the tissues. Leaves are also the sites in most plants where transpiration and guttation take place are palmately compound, with serrate leaflets A leaflet in botany is a part of a compound leaf. A leaflet may resemble an entire leaf, but it is not borne on a stem as a leaf is, but rather on a vein of the whole leaf . Compound leaves are common in many plant families. For example, a tomato plant has leaflets on compound leaves. The first pair of leaves usually have a single leaflet, the number gradually increasing up to a maximum of about thirteen leaflets per leaf (usually seven or nine), depending on variety and growing conditions. At the top of a flowering plant, this number again diminishes to a single leaflet per leaf. The lower leaf pairs usually occur in an opposite leaf arrangement In botany, phyllotaxis or phyllotaxy is the arrangement of the leaves on the stem of a plant and the upper leaf pairs in an alternate arrangement on the main stem of a mature plant.

Cannabis normally has imperfect flowers A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in flowering plants . The biological function of a flower is to mediate the union of male sperm with female ovum in order to produce seeds. The process begins with pollination, is followed by fertilization, leading to the formation and dispersal of the seeds. For, with staminate The stamen is the male organ of a flower. Each stamen generally has a stalk called the filament (from Latin filum, meaning "thread"), and, on top of the filament, an anther (from Ancient Greek anthera, feminine of antheros "flowery," from anthos "flower"), and pollen sacs, called microsporangia. The development of the "male" and pistillate The gynoecium is a term with several meanings in botanical usage. In reference to mosses, liverworts and hornworts, "gynoecium" refers to a cluster of archegonia and any associated modified leaves or stems present on a gametophyte shoot. The more common use of gynoecium, however, is to refer to the ovule-producing part of a flower. The "female" flowers occurring on separate plants.[6] It is not unusual, however, for individual plants to bear both male and female flowers.[7] Although monoecious plants are often referred to as "hermaphrodites," true hermaphrodites (which are less common) bear staminate and pistillate structures on individual flowers, whereas monoecious plants bear male and female flowers at different locations on the same plant. Male flowers are normally borne on loose panicles A panicle is a compound raceme, a loose, much-branched indeterminate inflorescence with pedicellate flowers attached along the secondary branches (in other words, a branched cluster of flowers in which the branches are racemes), and female flowers are borne on racemes A raceme is a type of inflorescence that is unbranched and indeterminate and bears pedicellate flowers — flowers having short floral stalks called pedicels — along the axis. In botany, axis means a shoot, in this case one bearing the flowers. In a raceme, the oldest flowers are borne towards the base and new flowers are produced as the shoot.[8]

All known strains of Cannabis are wind-pollinated Anemophily or wind pollination is a form of pollination whereby pollen is distributed by wind. Anemophilous plants may be either gymnosperms or angiosperms (flower-producing). However, flowering anemophilous species do not develop scented flowers, nor do they produce nectar. This distinguishes them from entomophilous and zoophilous species (whose[9] and produce "seeds A seed ( /ˈsiːd/ ), referred to as a kernel in some plants, is a small embryonic plant enclosed in a covering called the seed coat, usually with some stored food. It is the product of the ripened ovule of gymnosperm and angiosperm plants which occurs after fertilization and some growth within the mother plant. The formation of the seed completes" that are technically called achenes An achene is a type of simple dry fruit produced by many species of flowering plants. Achenes are monocarpellate (formed from one carpel) and indehiscent (they do not open at maturity). Achenes contain a single seed that nearly fills the pericarp, but does not adhere to it. In many species, what we think of as the "seed" is actually an.[10] Most strains of Cannabis are short day plants Many flowering plants use a photoreceptor protein, such as phytochrome or cryptochrome, to sense seasonal changes in night length, or photoperiod, which they take as signals to flower. In a further subdivision, obligate photoperiodic plants absolutely require a long or short enough night before flowering, whereas facultative photoperiodic plants,[9] with the possible exception of C. sativa subsp. sativa var. spontanea (= C. ruderalis), which is commonly described as "auto-flowering" and may be day-neutral Many flowering plants use a photoreceptor protein, such as phytochrome or cryptochrome, to sense seasonal changes in night length, or photoperiod, which they take as signals to flower. In a further subdivision, obligate photoperiodic plants absolutely require a long or short enough night before flowering, whereas facultative photoperiodic plants.

Cannabis, like many organisms, is diploid Ploidy is the number of complete sets of chromosomes in a biological cell. In humans, the somatic cells that compose the body are diploid , but sex cells (sperm and egg) are haploid. In contrast, tetraploidy (four sets of chromosomes) is a type of polyploidy and is common in plants, and not uncommon in amphibians, reptiles, and various species of, having a chromosome A chromosome is an organized structure of DNA and protein that is found in cells. It is a single piece of coiled DNA containing many genes, regulatory elements and other nucleotide sequences. Chromosomes also contain DNA-bound proteins, which serve to package the DNA and control its functions. The word chromosome comes from the Greek χρῶμα complement of 2n=20, although polyploid individuals have been artificially produced.[11] The plant is believed to have originated in the mountainous regions northwest of the Himalayas. It is also known as hemp, although this term is often used to refer only to varieties of Cannabis cultivated for non-drug use. Cannabis plants produce a group of chemicals called cannabinoids, which produce mental and physical effects when consumed. Cannabinoids Before the 1980s, it was often speculated that cannabinoids produced their physiological and behavioral effects via nonspecific interaction with cell membranes, instead of interacting with specific membrane-bound receptors. The discovery of the first cannabinoid receptors in the 1980s helped to resolve this debate. These receptors are common in, terpenoids The terpenoids , sometimes called isoprenoids, are a large and diverse class of naturally-occurring organic chemicals similar to terpenes, derived from five-carbon isoprene units assembled and modified in thousands of ways. Most are multicyclic structures that differ from one another not only in functional groups but also in their basic carbon, and other compounds are secreted by glandular trichomes Trichomes, from the Greek meaning "growth of hair", are fine outgrowths or appendages on plants and certain protists. These are of diverse structure and function. Examples are hairs, glandular hairs, scales, and papillae that occur most abundantly on the floral calyxes A sepal is a part of the flower of angiosperms (flowering plants). Sepals in most flowers are green and lie under the more conspicuous petals. As a collective unit the sepals form a calyx, whereas the collection of petals is called the corolla. Together, these two structures are known as the perianth of the flower and bracts In botany, a bract is a modified or specialized leaf. Bracts are ordinarily associated with reproductive structures . They are ordinarily reduced in size relative to foliage leaves, or of a different color or texture from foliage leaves, or both of female plants.[12] As a drug it usually comes in the form of dried flower buds (marijuana Cannabis, also known as marijuana, marihuana, or ganja refers to any number of preparations of the cannabis plant intended for human consumption as a drug, the most common of which is the natural herbal form), resin (hashish), or various extracts collectively known as hashish oil.[3] In the early 20th century, it became illegal in most of the world to cultivate or possess Cannabis for drug purposes.

Taxonomy

Cannabis Leaf Leaf of a Cannabis plant.

The genus Cannabis was formerly placed in the Nettle (Urticaceae) or Mulberry (Moraceae) family, but is now considered along with hops (Humulus sp.) to belong to the Hemp family (Cannabaceae).[13] Recent phylogenetic studies based on cpDNA restriction site analysis and gene sequencing strongly suggest that the Cannabaceae arose from within the Celtidaceae clade, and that the two families should be merged to form a single monophyletic group.[14][15]

Various types of Cannabis have been described, and classified as species, subspecies, or varieties:[16]

Cannabis plants produce a unique family of terpeno-phenolic compounds called cannabinoids, which produce the "high" one experiences from smoking marijuana. The two cannabinoids usually produced in greatest abundance are cannabidiol (CBD) and/or Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), but only THC is psychoactive. Since the early 1970s, Cannabis plants have been categorized by their chemical phenotype or "chemotype," based on the overall amount of THC produced, and on the ratio of THC to CBD.[17] Although overall cannabinoid production is influenced by environmental factors, the THC/CBD ratio is genetically determined and remains fixed throughout the life of a plant.[18] Non-drug plants produce relatively low levels of THC and high levels of CBD, while drug plants produce high levels of THC and low levels of CBD. When plants of these two chemotypes cross-pollinate, the plants in the first filial (F1) generation have an intermediate chemotype and produce similar amounts of CBD and THC. Female plants of this chemotype may produce enough THC to be utilized for drug production.[17][19]

Top of Cannabis plant in vegetative growth stage.

Whether the drug and non-drug, cultivated and wild types of Cannabis constitute a single, highly variable species, or the genus is polytypic with more than one species, has been a subject of debate for well over two centuries. This is a contentious issue because there is no universally accepted definition of a species.[20] One widely applied criterion for species recognition is that species are "groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations which are reproductively isolated from other such groups."[21] Populations that are physiologically capable of interbreeding, but morphologically or genetically divergent and isolated by geography or ecology, are sometimes considered to be separate species.[21] Physiological barriers to reproduction are not known to occur within Cannabis, and plants from widely divergent sources are interfertile.[11] However, physical barriers to gene exchange (such as the Himalayan mountain range) might have enabled Cannabis gene pools to diverge before the onset of human intervention, resulting in speciation.[22] It remains controversial whether sufficient morphological and genetic divergence occurs within the genus as a result of geographical or ecological isolation to justify recognition of more than one species.[23][24][25]

Early classifications

Relative size of types of cannabis

The Cannabis genus was first classified using the "modern" system of taxonomic nomenclature by Carolus Linnaeus in 1753, who devised the system still in use for the naming of species.[26] He considered the genus to be monotypic, having just a single species that he named Cannabis sativa L. (L. stands for Linnaeus, and indicates the authority who first named the species). Linnaeus was familiar with European hemp, which was widely cultivated at the time. In 1785, noted evolutionary biologist Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck published a description of a second species of Cannabis, which he named Cannabis indica Lam.[27] Lamarck based his description of the newly named species on plant specimens collected in India. He described C. indica as having poorer fiber quality than C. sativa, but greater utility as an inebriant. Additional Cannabis species were proposed in the 19th century, including strains from China and Vietnam (Indo-China) assigned the names Cannabis chinensis Delile, and Cannabis gigantea Delile ex Vilmorin.[28] However, many taxonomists found these putative species difficult to distinguish. In the early 20th century, the single-species concept was still widely accepted, except in the Soviet Union where Cannabis continued to be the subject of active taxonomic study. The name Cannabis indica was listed in various Pharmacopoeias, and was widely used to designate Cannabis suitable for the manufacture of medicinal preparations.[29]

20th Century

In 1924, Russian botanist D.E. Janichevsky concluded that ruderal Cannabis in central Russia is either a variety of C. sativa or a separate species, and proposed C. sativa L. var. ruderalis Janisch. and Cannabis ruderalis Janisch. as alternative names.[16] In 1929, renowned plant explorer Nikolai Vavilov assigned wild or feral populations of Cannabis in Afghanistan to C. indica Lam. var. kafiristanica Vav., and ruderal populations in Europe to C. sativa L. var. spontanea Vav.[19][28] In 1940, Russian botanists Serebriakova and Sizov proposed a complex classification in which they also recognized C. sativa and C. indica as separate species. Within C. sativa they recognized two subspecies: C. sativa L. subsp. culta Serebr. (consisting of cultivated plants), and C. sativa L. subsp. spontanea (Vav.) Serebr. (consisting of wild or feral plants). Serebriakova and Sizov split the two C. sativa subspecies into 13 varieties, including four distinct groups within subspecies culta. However, they did not divide C. indica into subspecies or varieties.[16][30] This excessive splitting of C. sativa proved too unwieldy, and never gained many adherents.

Ruderal Cannabis.

In the 1970s, the taxonomic classification of Cannabis took on added significance in North America. Laws prohibiting Cannabis in the United States and Canada specifically named products of C. sativa as prohibited materials. Enterprising attorneys for the defense in a few drug busts argued that the seized Cannabis material may not have been C. sativa, and was therefore not prohibited by law. Attorneys on both sides recruited botanists to provide expert testimony. Among those testifying for the prosecution was Dr. Ernest Small, while Dr. Richard E. Schultes and others testified for the defense. The botanists engaged in heated debate (outside of court), and both camps impugned the other's integrity.[23][24] The defense attorneys were not often successful in winning their case, because the intent of the law was clear.[31]

In 1976, Canadian botanist Ernest Small[32] and American taxonomist Arthur Cronquist published a taxonomic revision that recognizes a single species of Cannabis with two subspecies: C. sativa L. subsp. sativa, and C. sativa L. subsp. indica (Lam.) Small & Cronq.[28] The authors hypothesized that the two subspecies diverged primarily as a result of human selection; C. sativa subsp. sativa was presumably selected for traits that enhance fiber or seed production, whereas C. sativa subsp. indica was primarily selected for drug production. Within these two subspecies, Small and Cronquist described C. sativa L. subsp. sativa var. spontanea Vav. as a wild or escaped variety of low-intoxicant Cannabis, and C. sativa subsp. indica var. kafiristanica (Vav.) Small & Cronq. as a wild or escaped variety of the high-intoxicant type. This classification was based on several factors including interfertility, chromosome uniformity, chemotype, and numerical analysis of phenotypic characters.[17][28][33]

Professors William Emboden, Loran Anderson, and Harvard botanist Richard E. Schultes and coworkers also conducted taxonomic studies of Cannabis in the 1970s, and concluded that stable morphological differences exist that support recognition of at least three species, C. sativa, C. indica, and C. ruderalis.[34][35][36][37] For Schultes, this was a reversal of his previous interpretation that Cannabis is monotypic, with only a single species.[38] According to Schultes' and Anderson's descriptions, C. sativa is tall and laxly branched with relatively narrow leaflets, C. indica is shorter, conical in shape, and has relatively wide leaflets, and C. ruderalis is short, branchless, and grows wild in central Asia. This taxonomic interpretation was embraced by Cannabis aficionados who commonly distinguish narrow-leafed "sativa" drug strains from wide-leafed "indica" drug strains.[39]

Ongoing research

Molecular analytical techniques developed in the late twentieth century are being applied to questions of taxonomic classification. This has resulted in many reclassifications based on evolutionary systematics. Several studies of Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and other types of genetic markers have been conducted on drug and fiber strains of Cannabis, primarily for plant breeding and forensic purposes.[40][41][42][43][44] Dutch Cannabis researcher E.P.M. de Meijer and coworkers described some of their RAPD studies as showing an "extremely high" degree of genetic polymorphism between and within populations, suggesting a high degree of potential variation for selection, even in heavily selected hemp cultivars.[18] They also commented that these analyses confirm the continuity of the Cannabis gene pool throughout the studied accessions, and provide further confirmation that the genus comprises a single species, although theirs was not a systematic study per se.

Karl W. Hillig, a graduate student in the laboratory of long-time Cannabis researcher Paul G. Mahlberg[45] at Indiana University, conducted a systematic investigation of genetic, morphological, and chemotaxonomic variation among 157 Cannabis accessions of known geographic origin, including fiber, drug, and feral populations. In 2004, Hillig and Mahlberg published a chemotaxomic analysis of cannabinoid variation in their Cannabis germplasm collection. They used gas chromatography to determine cannabinoid content and to infer allele frequencies of the gene that controls CBD and THC production within the studied populations, and concluded that the patterns of cannabinoid variation support recognition of C. sativa and C. indica as separate species, but not C. ruderalis.[19] The authors assigned fiber/seed landraces and feral populations from Europe, central Asia, and Asia Minor to C. sativa. Narrow-leaflet and wide-leaflet drug accessions, southern and eastern Asian hemp accessions, and feral Himalayan populations were assigned to C. indica. In 2005, Hillig published a genetic analysis of the same set of accessions (this paper was the first in the series, but was delayed in publication), and proposed a three-species classification, recognizing C. sativa, C. indica, and (tentatively) C. ruderalis.[22] In his doctoral dissertation published the same year, Hillig stated that principal components analysis of phenotypic (morphological) traits failed to differentiate the putative species, but that canonical variates analysis resulted in a high degree of discrimination of the putative species and infraspecific taxa.[46] Another paper in the series on chemotaxonomic variation in the terpenoid content of the essential oil of Cannabis revealed that several wide-leaflet drug strains in the collection had relatively high levels of certain sesquiterpene alcohols, including guaiol and isomers of eudesmol, that set them apart from the other putative taxa.[47] Hillig concluded that the patterns of genetic, morphological, and chemotaxonomic variation support recognition of C. sativa and C. indica as separate species. He also concluded there is little support to treat C. ruderalis as a separate species from C. sativa at this time, but more research on wild and weedy populations is needed because they were underrepresented in their collection.

In September 2005, New Scientist reported that researchers at the Canberra Institute of Technology had identified a new type of Cannabis based on analysis of mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.[48] The New Scientist story, which was picked up by many news agencies and web sites, indicated that the research was to be published in the journal Forensic Science International. When the article was finally published, there was no mention of "Rasta."[49]

As of 2007, most taxonomy web sites continue to list Cannabis as a single species.[50][51][52][53]

Popular usage

The scientific debate regarding taxonomy has had little effect on the terminology in widespread use among cultivators and users of drug-type Cannabis. Cannabis aficionados recognize three distinct types based on such factors as morphology, native range, aroma, and subjective psychoactive characteristics. "Sativa" is the term used to describe the most widespread variety, which is usually tall, laxly branched, and found in warm lowland regions. "Indica" is used to designate shorter, bushier plants adapted to cooler climates and highland environments. "Ruderalis" is the term used to describe the short plants that grow wild in Europe and central Asia.

Breeders, seed companies, and cultivators of drug type Cannabis often describe the ancestry or gross phenotypic characteristics of cultivars by categorizing them as "pure indica," "mostly indica," "indica/sativa," "mostly sativa", or "pure sativa."

Reproduction

Breeding systems

Cannabis sativa seeds Cannabis Bud Showing its Trichomes. Male Cannabis pollen sacs.

Cannabis is predominantly dioecious,[9][54] although many monoecious varieties have been described.[55] Subdioecy (the occurrence of monoecious individuals and dioecious individuals within the same population) is widespread.[56][57][58] Many populations have been described as sexually labile.[42][59][60]

As a result of intensive selection in cultivation, Cannabis exhibits many sexual phenotypes that can be described in terms of the ratio of female to male flowers occurring in the individual, or typical in the cultivar.[61] Dioecious varieties are preferred for drug production, where only the female plants are used. Dioecious varieties are also preferred for textile fiber production, whereas monoecious varieties are preferred for pulp and paper production. It has been suggested that the presence of monoecy can be used to differentiate licit crops of monoecious hemp from illicit drug crops.[56] However, the so-called "sativa" drug strains often produce monoecious individuals, probably as a result of inbreeding.

Mechanisms of sex determination

Cannabis has been described as having one of the most complicated mechanisms of sex determination among the dioecious plants.[61] Many models have been proposed to explain sex determination in Cannabis.

Based on studies of sex reversal in hemp, it was first reported by K. Hirata in 1924 that an XY sex-determination system is present.[59] At the time, the XY system was the only known system of sex determination. The X:A system was first described in Drosophila spp in 1925.[62] Soon thereafter, Schaffner disputed Hirata's interpretation,[63] and published results from his own studies of sex reversal in hemp, concluding that an X:A system was in use and that furthermore sex was strongly influenced by environmental conditions.[60]

Since then, many different types of sex determination systems have been discovered, particularly in plants.[54] Dioecy is relatively uncommon in the plant kingdom, and a very low percentage of dioecious plant species have been determined to use the XY system. In most cases where the XY system is found it is believed to have evolved recently and independently.[64]

Since the 1920s, a number of sex determination models have been proposed for Cannabis. Ainsworth describes sex determination in the genus as using "an X/autosome dosage type".[54]

Dense raceme of carpellate flowers typical of drug-type varieties of Cannabis

The question of whether heteromorphic sex chromosomes are indeed present is most conveniently answered if such chromosomes were clearly visible in a karyotype. Cannabis was one of the first plant species to be karyotyped; however, this was in a period when karyotype preparation was primitive by modern standards (see History of Cytogenetics). Heteromorphic sex chromosomes were reported to occur in staminate individuals of dioecious "Kentucky" hemp, but were not found in pistillate individuals of the same variety. Dioecious "Kentucky" hemp was assumed to use an XY mechanism. Heterosomes were not observed in analyzed individuals of monoecious "Kentucky" hemp, nor in an unidentified German cultivar. These varieties were assumed to have sex chromosome composition XX.[65] According to other researchers, no modern karyotype of Cannabis had been published as of 1996.[66] Proponents of the XY system state that Y chromosome is slightly larger than the X, but difficult to differentiate cytologically.[67]

More recently, Sakamoto and various co-authors[68][69] have used RAPD to isolate several genetic marker sequences that they name Male-Associated DNA in Cannabis (MADC), and which they interpret as indirect evidence of a male chromosome. Several other research groups have reported identification of male-associated markers using RAPD and AFLP.[18][42][70] Ainsworth commented on these findings, stating,

It is not surprising that male-associated markers are relatively abundant. In dioecious plants where sex chromosomes have not been identified, markers for maleness indicate either the presence of sex chromosomes which have not been distinguished by cytological methods or that the marker is tightly linked to a gene involved in sex determination.[54]

Environmental sex determination is known to occur in a variety of species.[71] Many researchers have suggested that sex in Cannabis is determined or strongly influenced by environmental factors.[60] Ainsworth reviews that treatment with auxin and ethylene have feminizing effects, and that treatment with cytokinins and gibberellins have masculinizing effects.[54] It has been reported that sex can be reversed in Cannabis using chemical treatment.[72] A PCR-based method for the detection of female-associated DNA polymorphisms by genotyping has been developed.[73]

Human uses

Cannabis is used for a wide variety of purposes.

Hemp

As hemp, it is found in cordage, clothing, and food. Industrial hemp products are made from Cannabis plants selected to produce an abundance of fiber and minimal levels of THC (Δ9- tetrahydrocannabinol). The bast fibers can be used in 100% hemp products, but are commonly blended with fibers such as flax, cotton or silk, for apparel and furnishings, most commonly at a 55%/45% hemp/cotton blend. The inner two fibers of hemp are more woody, and are more often used in non-woven items and other industrial applications, such as mulch, animal bedding and litter. The oil from the fruits ("seeds") dries on exposure to air (similar to linseed oil) and is sometimes used in the manufacture of oil-based paints, in creams as a moisturising agent, for cooking, and in plastics. Hemp seeds have been used in bird seed mix.[74]

Recreational use

Main article: Cannabis (drug)

Due to the psychoactive molecule that produces the "high" associated with marijuana, the cultivation and possession of Cannabis for recreational use is outlawed in most countries. Various extracts including hashish and hash oil are also produced from the plant.[3]

Medical use

Main article: Medical cannabis

A synthetic form of one chemical in cannabis, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), is used as a treatment for a wide range of medical conditions.

In the United States, although the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) does acknowledge that "there has been considerable interest in its use for the treatment of a number of conditions, including glaucoma, AIDS wasting, neuropathic pain, treatment of spasticity associated with multiple sclerosis, and chemotherapy-induced nausea," the agency has not approved "medical marijuana". The FDA does facilitate scientific investigations into the medical uses of cannabinoids.[75] Comparable authorities in Western Europe, including the Netherlands, have not approved smoked cannabis for any condition or disease.[citation needed]

In a collection of writings on medical marijuana by 45 researchers, a literature review on the medicinal uses of cannabis and cannabinoids concluded that established uses include easing of nausea and vomiting, anorexia, and weight loss; "well-confirmed effect" was found in the treatment of spasticity, painful conditions (i.e. neurogenic pain), movement disorders, asthma, and glaucoma. Reported but "less-confirmed" effects included treatment of allergies, inflammation, infection, epilepsy, depression, bipolar disorders, anxiety disorder, dependency and withdrawal. Basic level research was being carried out at the time on autoimmune disease, cancer, neuroprotection, fever, disorders of blood pressure.[76]

Clinical trials conducted by the American Marijuana Policy Project, a pro-cannabis organization, have shown the efficacy of cannabis as a treatment for cancer and AIDS patients, who often suffer from clinical depression, and from nausea and resulting weight loss due to chemotherapy and other aggressive treatments.[77] A synthetic version of the cannabinoid THC named dronabinol has been shown to relieve symptoms of anorexia and reduce agitation in elderly Alzheimer's patients.[78] Dronabinol has been approved for use with anorexia in patients with HIV/AIDS and chemotherapy-related nausea. This drug, while demonstrating the effectiveness of cannabis at combating several disorders, is more expensive and less available than "pot" and has not been shown to be effective or safe.[79]

Glaucoma, a condition of increased pressure within the eyeball causing gradual loss of sight, can be treated with medical marijuana to decrease this intraocular pressure. There has been debate for 25 years on the subject. Some data exist, showing a reduction of IOP in glaucoma patients who smoke cannabis,[80] but the effects are short-lived, and the frequency of doses needed to sustain a decreased IOP can cause systemic toxicity. There is also some concern over its use since it can also decrease blood flow to the optic nerve. Marijuana lowers IOP by acting on a cannabinoid receptor on the ciliary body called the CB receptor.[81] Although cannabis is not a good therapeutic choice for glaucoma patients, it may lead researchers to more effective, safer treatments. A promising study shows that agents targeted to ocular CB receptors can reduce IOP in glaucoma patients who have failed other therapies.[82]

Medical cannabis is also used for analgesia, or pain relief. It is also reported to be beneficial for treating certain neurological illnesses such as epilepsy, and bipolar disorder.[83] Case reports have found that cannabis can relieve tics in people with obsessive compulsive disorder and Tourette syndrome. Patients treated with tetrahydrocannabinol, the main psychoactive chemical found in cannabis, reported a significant decrease in both motor and vocal tics, some of 50% or more.[84][85][86] Some decrease in obsessive-compulsive behavior was also found.[84] A recent study has also concluded that cannabinoids found in cannabis might have the ability to prevent Alzheimer's disease.[87] THC has been shown to reduce arterial blockages.[88]

Another potential use for medical cannabis is movement disorders. cannabis is frequently reported to reduce the muscle spasms associated with multiple sclerosis; this has been acknowledged by the Institute of Medicine, but it noted that these abundant anecdotal reports are not well-supported by clinical data. Evidence from animal studies suggests that there is a possible role for cannabinoids in the treatment of certain types of epileptic seizures.[89] A synthetic version of the major active compound in cannabis, THC, is available in capsule form as the prescription drug dronabinol (Marinol) in many countries. The prescription drug Sativex, an extract of cannabis administered as a sublingual spray, has been approved in Canada for the treatment of multiple sclerosis.[90]

Religious use

Main article: Spiritual use of cannabis

Cannabis is first referred to in Hindu Vedas between 2000 and 1400 BCE, in the Atharvaveda. By the tenth century CE, it was being referred to in India as "food of the gods".[91] Cannabis use eventually became a ritual part of the Hindu festival of Holi. In Buddhism, cannabis has been used in meditation and regarded as a holy plant since 500 BCE.[92] Shamanic use of Cannabis in China has been dated to at least 1000 BCE.[93] In ancient Germanic culture, cannabis was associated with the Norse love goddess, Freya.[94][95] An anointing oil mentioned in Exodus is, by some translators, said to contain cannabis.[96] Sufis have used cannabis in a spiritual context since the thirteenth century CE.[97]

In modern times the Rastafari movement has embraced cannabis as a sacrament.[98] Elders of the modern religious movement known as the Ethiopian Zion Coptic Church consider cannabis to be the Eucharist, claiming it as an oral tradition from Ethiopia dating back to the time of Christ, even though the movement was founded in the United States in 1975 and has no ties to either Ethiopia or the Coptic Church.[99] Like the Rastafari, some modern Gnostic Christian sects have asserted that cannabis is the Tree of Life.[100][101] Other organized religions founded in the 20th century that treat cannabis as a sacrament are the THC Ministry,[102] the Way of Infinite Harmony, Cantheism,[103] the Cannabis Assembly[104] and the Church of Cognizance.

Aspects of Cannabis production and use

Cannabis field seized by authorities

Gallery

See also

Cannabis portal

References

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Further reading

External links

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Compounds Aconitine • Δ9-THC • Atropine • Cocaine • Coniine • Hyoscyamine • Morphine • Salicylate • Scopolamine
Herbal Sedatives
Cannabis, Kava, Mandrake, Valerian plant
Herbs and spices
Herbs

Angelica · Basil · Basil, holy · Basil, Thai · Bay leaf · Boldo · Bolivian Coriander · Borage · Chervil · Chives · Cicely · Coriander leaf (cilantro) · Cress · Curry leaf · Dill · Elsholtzia ciliata · Epazote · Eryngium foetidum (long coriander) · Hemp · Hoja santa · Houttuynia cordata (giấp cá) · Hyssop · Jimbu · Lavender · Lemon balm · Lemon grass · Lemon myrtle · Lemon verbena · Limnophila aromatica (rice paddy herb) · Lovage · Marjoram · Mint · Mitsuba · Oregano · Parsley · Perilla (shiso) · Rosemary · Rue · Sage · Savory · Sorrel · Tarragon · Thyme · Vietnamese coriander (rau răm) · Woodruff
Spices

Ajwain (bishop's weed) · Aleppo pepper · Allspice · Amchur (mango powder) · Anise · Aromatic ginger · Asafoetida · Camphor · Caraway · Cardamom · Charoli · Cardamom, black · Cassia · Cayenne pepper · Celery seed · Chenpi · Chili · Cinnamon · Clove · Coriander seed · Cubeb · Cumin · Cumin, black · Dill & dill seed · Fennel · Fenugreek · Fingerroot (krachai) · Galangal, greater · Galangal, lesser · Garlic · Ginger · Golpar · Grains of Paradise · Grains of Selim · Horseradish · Juniper berry · Kaempferia galanga (kencur) · Kokum · Lime, black · Liquorice · Litsea cubeba · Mace · Mahlab · Malabathrum (tejpat) · Mustard, black · Mustard, brown · Mustard, white · Nigella (kalonji) · Nutmeg · Paprika · Peppercorn (black, green & white) · Pepper, long · Radhuni · Rose · Pepper, Brazilian · Pepper, Peruvian · Pomegranate seed (anardana) · Poppy seed · Salt · Saffron · Sarsaparilla · Sassafras · Sesame · Sichuan pepper (huājiāo, sansho) · Star anise · Sumac · Tasmanian pepper · Tamarind · Tonka bean · Turmeric · Vanilla · Wasabi · Zedoary · Zereshk · Zest
Herb and spice mixtures

Adjika · Advieh · Afghan spice rub · Baharat · Berbere · Bouquet garni · Buknu · Chaat masala · Chaunk · Chile powder · Chili powder · Crab boil · Curry powder · Fines herbes · Five-spice powder · Garam masala · Garlic salt · Harissa · Herbes de Provence · Jerk spice · Khmeli suneli · Lemon pepper · Masala · Mitmita · Mixed spice · Old Bay Seasoning · Panch phoron · Persillade · Pumpkin pie spice · Qâlat Daqqa · Quatre épices · Ras el hanout · Recado rojo · Sharena sol · Shichimi · Tabil · Tandoori masala · Za'atar
Lists of herbs and spices
List of Australian herbs and spices · Chinese herbs · List of Indian spices · List of Pakistani spices · List of culinary herbs and spices
Related topics
Marinating · Spice rub
Medicinal herbs and fungi
Herbs Cannabis • Za'atar • Caraway • Cardamom • Ginger • Ginseng
Regional practices Chinese herbology • Japanese herbology • Indian herbology
Related subjects Alternative medicine • Herbal tea • Homeopathy • Herbalism • List of plants used as medicine

Categories: Cannabis | Herbs | Fiber plants | Greek loanwords | Underutilized crops | Medicinal plants | Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants

 

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'Cannabis' News
Drugs charge for 18-year-old following raid - Derby Evening Telegraph
news.google.com
Drugs charge for 18-year-old following raid

Derby Evening Telegraph

AN 18-YEAR-OLD man has been charged following the discovery of suspected cannabis at a house in Derby. Officers raided the home at Morningside Close, ...



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L effet antitumoral du cannabis se confirme en particulier grace aux travaux de l equipe de Juan Iovanna et de l INSERM de Marseille

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'Cannabis' Blogs
Breaking News From Standout Stocks - Tuesday, June 16, 2009 ...
stockreads.com
Breaking News From Standout Stocks - Tuesday, June 16, 2009 ...

unknown

2009-06-16 14:29:00

Standout Stocks Newsletter Presents . Cannabis. Science, Inc. - CBIS To All Our Subscribers, We here at Standout Stocks would li.

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Wed Jun 17 03:44:40 2009
'Cannabis' Answers
What was the history that made cannabis illegal in the United Kingdom?
Q. Due to my liberal upbringing and relaxed parents I now wonder why the government made cannabis illegal. Can anyone spread some light on this?
Asked by bigmolejack - Mon Apr 6 15:38:51 2009 - - 3 Answers - 0 Comments

A. Because the governent cannot easily tax it because anyone could easily grow it themselves
Answered by Connor F - Mon Apr 6 15:50:06 2009

Yahoo Answers Search: Cannabis,
Sun Jul 12 10:48:38 2009
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